Critical Philosophy

Applied Critical Thinking, by Cologero Salvo
This document is a guideline that was used for a weekly seminar in 2005 that focused on the study of various systems of non-dualism. We also addressed issues related to science, metaphysics and extropianism. It would be different were it written today. Nevertheless, it may still be helpful, particularly to authors and commenters.

What is Critical Philosophy

Critical Philosophy is a form of thinking that exposes the flaws and assumptions in various positions. Its aim is neither negative nor skeptical, nor even to advance a dogma of its own; rather it seeks the road to truth by first eliminating error.  Error is easy to spot; discerning truth is much more difficult.

Roots of Critical Philosophy

The roots of critical philosophy can be found in the critical idealism of Immanuel Kant and Arthur Schopenhauer , the existentialism of Friedrich Nietzsche, and the different critical realisms of Karl Popper and Bernard Lonergan. It also has much in common with the Madhyamika school of Buddhism.

Purpose of Critical Thinking

To examine all the assumptions and preconceptions of “common sense” — that is, all that we accept uncritically — and expose them to logic, reason and understanding. Critical thinking can be understood in opposition to animal faith.

Animal Faith

The fate of everyone who learns in childhood to speak his mother tongue, may entertain no doubt about all he believes he knows, but never has found out for himself and in himself just what are the events that come together to  constitute human knowledge. (~ Lonergan)

Summary

The pre-critical, pre-rational mind is the mind as given in biological evolution and formed by society and the traditions in which it was raised in childhood and uncritically adopted in adulthood. It is unaware of the
biological constraints it is under and the psychological and social processes by which it was formed. It accepts ideas primarily on their emotional content and on their usefulness.

The critical mind seeks to become conscious of all that the pre-critical mind passively accepts: the biological, psychological, and social preconditions of mentation. It seeks to make conscious all the hidden motivations and unexamined assumptions of our mental life. It seeks to understand the epistemological criteria for making sound judgments.

Guidelines

Different guidelines have been proposed for critical thinking. Some important ones are listed here.

Checks on judgment

The mind is constantly organizing data, trying to understand, and formulating theories to explain the mass of data reaching it. Usually these theories are accepted because they “sound good” or “resonate”. The critical
mind will want to check each theory by the following criteria:

  1. The check of logic Is the theory consistent?
  2. The check of sense observation: Is the theory empirically refutable by some sense observation?
  3. The check of scientific theory: Is the theory, whether or not it is in conflict with sense observation, in conflict with any scientific hypotheses?
  4. The check of the problem: What problem is the theory intended to solve? Does it do so successfully? Or better than other views? Does it create still worse difficulties?

From Retreat from Commitment. ~ Bartley

Principle of Falsification

We admit a postulate if we cannot refute it.

As proposed by Karl Popper, it states that scientific theories can never be completely proven. The task of the scientist is not to prove his theory, but rather to devise experiments designed to try to falsify his theory.

This should serve as a guide for the defense of all postulates. A critical thinker must always ask himself: “What evidence or argument will falsify my beliefs?” He must then be willing to change his view based on that falsifying evidence.

Principle of Induction

We refute a postulate if we cannot find facts or phenomena to confirm it.

By starting from perceived facts and experiences, we move toward more general postulates.

Distinctions of statements

There are various types of statements and claims that can be made. Confusion can be avoided if care is taken to recognize which type of statement is being made.

  • Empirical/Metaphysical
  • Phenomenal/Noumenal
  • Synthetic /Analytic
  • Positive/Existential

Fourfold root of sufficient reason

This is from Schopenhauer’s book of the same title.

Its aim is to elucidate what may qualify as a explanation, or sufficient reason, which fall into four categories

Causation
In the physical world, sufficient reasons are causes: event A causes event B.
In the biological world, these causes can also be ‘stimuli’: event A stimulates event B
The cause of an event can only be another event
Mathematics
The structure of space and time is mathematical
A can be a sufficient reason for B if A is a mathematical determination of B
Motivation
A can be a sufficient reason for B if A is a motive for B
A motive is a cause experienced from within
Mind
The mind can make judgments of truth or falsity.
Judgments guide action.
A can be a sufficient reason for B if A entails the truth of B
There are four ways.

Empirical truth
Entailed by direct observation or experience
Transcendent truth
A necessary presupposition of experience or the categories in which we are forced to think.
Logical truth
One event can be logically deduced from another
Metalogical truth
The laws of logic themselves, without which knowledge and discussion would be impossible.

Cognitional Process

Try to overcome the idea that the world is “out there, right now”, exactly as we experience. The real world, underlying our experiences, is quite stranger than we realize and may be ultimately unknowable.

We are not passive recipients of the “world”, we actively construct our world. This construction is open to error, and is in need of frequent correction. The uncritical process is “trial and error”; in critical thinking we become aware of the process of “world-construction.”

It is important to recognize the stages involved in our attempts to grasp empirical reality. These stages can readily be observed in oneself.

Stage Description Question Failure
Attention Data of sense
Data of consciousness
  Inattention
Understanding Inquiry, insight, formulation What is it? Misunderstanding
Judgment Judge the understanding:
Accurate/inaccurate
Correct/Mistaken
Is it so? Rationalization

Attention

This is the raw data of sense and data of consciousness. It includes our experience of color, size, smell, sensation, emotions, etc. In themselves our experiences are neither right nor wrong.

Failure Point: Inattention at this point will yield unreliable data.

Goal: Be more attentive to the actual data.

Understanding

We are always attempting to understand our experiences. Usually, we try to categorize it with memories of similar situations. We ask the question, “what is it?” to our sense data. Sometimes the answer just clicks and we get the feeling of an insight (Eureka!), or hunch. However, our understanding is not complete; we must subject our understanding to the appropriate standards of judgment.

Failure Point: Misunderstanding occurs when all the data is not grasped coherently

Goal: Replace misunderstanding with understanding.

Judgment

Once we come to an understanding of our experience, we decide if our understanding is correct or incorrect. It is correct if the conditions required for its truth are satisfied.

Questions like “Is that actually the case?” are questions for judgment.

Failure Point: Rationalization replaces sound judgment

Goal: Accept what is the case, rather than the easy rationalization which may be calming, soothing, or socially acceptable.

Mediated World

The bulk of human experience is mediated, through thought, language, society. Even are own selves are mediated, as described by Dennett’s multiple drafts.

The following passages are taken from Bernard Lonergan.

Immediate World

The criteria of reality in the infant’s world if immediacy are given in immediate experience. They are simply the occurrence of seeing or hearing, tasting or smelling, touching or feeling, enjoying or suffering.

World mediated by meaning

 But the criteria of reality in the world mediated by meaning is far more complex.

For the world mediated by meaning is not just given. Over and above what is given there is the universe that is intended by questions, that is organized by intelligence, that is described by language, that is enriched by tradition It is an enormous world far beyond the comprehension of the nursery. But is also is an insecure world, for besides fact there is fiction, besides truth there is error, besides science there is myth, besides honesty there is deceit.

Critical Corrections

Critical thinking looks at several areas of uncritical thinking and offers a critical replacement, as shown in the following table.

Uncritical Critical
Easy answers Hard questions
Common Sense Science
Folk Psychology Cognitive Philosophy
Mythology Objective Art
Naïve realism Critical realism
Religion Tradition
Mysticism Metaphysics
Search for usefulness Search for truth
Faith Gnosis
Hope Accommplishment

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